STM Journals Peer-reviewed research from Consortium e-Learning Network

Research and Reviews : Journal of Dairy Science and Technology Review Article

Toxicokinetics of Herbicide Residues in Green Forages: Implications for Fertility, Health, and Welfare of Dairy Cows

  1. Md. Emran Hossain Department of Animal Science and Nutrition, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Khulshi, Chattogram

Abstract

Herbicide residues in green roughages have emerged as a significant concern in dairy production due to their potential toxicokinetic interactions and detrimental effects on reproductive health. While herbicides are widely used to control weeds and enhance fodder yield, their persistence in forage poses a latent risk to dairy cattle fertility. This review explores the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of herbicide residues in dairy cows, emphasizing their bioaccumulation and systemic effects. The ingestion of contaminated roughages can lead to oxidative stress, endocrine disruption, and metabolic imbalances, which collectively impair ovarian function, estrous cyclicity, and embryo viability. Herbicide residues interfere with steroidogenesis, alter hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis regulation, and induce epigenetic modifications in reproductive tissues, leading to subfertility and pregnancy losses. Additionally, prolonged exposure to herbicide residues is linked to inflammatory responses in the reproductive tract, compromised uterine receptivity, and increased incidence of anovulation. The role of gut microbiota in modulating herbicide biotransformation and its impact on fertility remains an underexplored domain. This review also discusses potential mitigation strategies, including dietary interventions, probiotic applications, and regulatory policies aimed at reducing herbicide exposure in dairy nutrition. Addressing these toxicological challenges is critical for safeguarding reproductive efficiency and ensuring sustainable dairy farming practices.

Keywords

References (34)

  1. Atta AH, Atta SA, Nasr SM, Mouneir SM. Current perspective on veterinary drug and chemical residues in food of animal origin. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2022;29(11):15282-15302. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-18239-y
  2. Hashimi MH, Hashimi R, Ryan Q. Toxic Effects of Pesticides on Humans, Plants, Animals, Pollinators and Beneficial Organisms. Asian Plant Research Journal. 2020:37-47. doi:10.9734/aprj/2020/v5i430114
  3. Leoci R, Ruberti M. Pesticides: An Overview of the Current Health Problems of Their Use. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection. 2021;09(08):1-20. doi:10.4236/gep.2021.98001
  4. Hongoeb J, Tantimongcolwat T, Ayimbila F, Ruankham W, Phopin K. Herbicide-related health risks: key mechanisms and a guide to mitigation strategies. Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology. 2025;20(1). doi:10.1186/s12995-025-00448-7
  5. Guvvala PR, Ravindra JP, Selvaraju S. Impact of environmental contaminants on reproductive health of male domestic ruminants: a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2019;27(4):3819-3836. doi:10.1007/s11356-019-06980-4
  6. Frazier LM. Reproductive Disorders Associated with Pesticide Exposure. Journal of Agromedicine. 2007;12(1):27-37. doi:10.1300/j096v12n01_04
  7. GHUMAN SPS, RATNAKARAN U, BEDI JS, GILL JPS. Impact of pesticide residues on fertility of dairy animals: A review. The Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 2013;83(12). doi:10.56093/ijans.v83i12.35789
  8. Anton BJ, Oguchi Y, White AM, Karasov WH, Dehnert GK. The impacts of 2,4-D herbicide DMA® 4 IVM on reproductive health and gene expression along the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonad-liver [HPGL] axis in the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas). Chemosphere. 2025;371:143994. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.143994
  9. Bamal D, Duhan A, Pal A, Beniwal RK, Kumawat P, Dhanda S, et al. Herbicide risks to non-target species and the environment: A review. Environmental Chemistry Letters. 2024;22(6):2977-3032. doi:10.1007/s10311-024-01773-9
  10. Ghuman SPS, Ratnakaran U, Bedi JS, Gill JPS. Impaired fertility in dairy animals in the backdrop of high pesticide contamination: A perspective. In: Proc Int Symp One Health: Way Forward to Challenges in Food Safety and Zoonoses in 21st Century, XI Annual Conf Indian Assoc Vet Public Health Specialists. 2012. pp. 13–14.
  11. Yadav H, Kumar R, Singh Sankhla M, Yadav H. Residues of pesticides and heavy metals in crops resulting in toxic effects on living organism. J Seybold Rep. 2020;15(7):1527–1540. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.24806.65609.
  12. Nath CP, Singh RG, Choudhary VK, Datta D, Nandan R, Singh SS. Challenges and Alternatives of Herbicide-Based Weed Management. Agronomy. 2024;14(1):126. doi:10.3390/agronomy14010126
  13. Mitra S, Saran RK, Srivastava S, Rensing C. Pesticides in the environment: Degradation routes, pesticide transformation products and ecotoxicological considerations. Science of The Total Environment. 2024;935:173026. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173026
  14. Meggs WJ. Herbicides. In: Farm toxicology: A primer for rural healthcare practitioners. Springer; 2025. pp. 79–84.
  15. Wang L, Xie C, Sui J, Yang J, Zhou Y, Wang T, et al. Microbial degradation of diphenyl ether herbicides past, present and future. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering. 2025;13(3):116357. doi:10.1016/j.jece.2025.116357
  16. Rajmohan KS, Chandrasekaran R, Varjani S. A Review on Occurrence of Pesticides in Environment and Current Technologies for Their Remediation and Management. Indian Journal of Microbiology. 2020;60(2):125-138. doi:10.1007/s12088-019-00841-x
  17. Kaur H. Studies on the pesticide residues in green fodder dry roughages and concentrate feed in Punjab [thesis]. Ludhiana: Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University; 2011.
  18. Choudhary S, Raheja N, Kumar S, Kamboj M, Sharma A. A review: Pesticide residue: Cause of many animal health problems. J Entomol Zool Stud. 2018;6(3):330–333.
  19. Biehl ML, Buck WB. Chemical Contaminants: Their Metabolism and their Residues. Journal of Food Protection. 1987;50(12):1058-1073. doi:10.4315/0362-028x-50.12.1058
  20. Bose S, Kumar PS, Vo DVN, Rajamohan N, Saravanan R. Microbial degradation of recalcitrant pesticides: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters. 2021;19(4):3209-3228. doi:10.1007/s10311-021-01236-5
  21. Aislabie J, Lloyd-Jones G. A review of bacterial-degradation of pesticides. Australian Journal of Soil Research. 1995;33(6):925-942. doi:10.1071/sr9950925
  22. Bedi J, Gill J, Kaur P, Aulakh R. Pesticide residues in milk and their relationship with pesticide contamination of feedstuffs supplied to dairy cattle in Punjab (India). Journal of Animal and Feed Sciences. 2018;27(1):18-25. doi:10.22358/jafs/82623/2018
  23. Holt JS, Powles SB, Holtum JAM. Mechanisms and Agronomic Aspects of Herbicide Resistance. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology. 1993;44(1):203-229. doi:10.1146/annurev.pp.44.060193.001223
  24. Park H, Kim HJ, Jeong MS, Kim CR, Choe ES, Youn YS, et al. 0596 Monitoring of pesticide residues in animal feeds from the Republic of Korea. J Anim Sci. 2016;94(suppl 5):282. doi:10.2527/jam2016–0596.
  25. Mitchell LE, Lykken L. Practical considerations in the degradation of pesticide chemical residues from forage crops. Residue Reviews / Rückstands-Berichte. 1963:130-149. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-8380-6_7
  26. Barrientos A. Pesticide residues in a pangola grass sward (Digitaria decumbens Stent). Cuba J Agric Sci. 1981;15(1):115–121.
  27. Neururer H, Buchgraber K. Herbicide residues in green forage, silage and hay. In: Report of the EGF-Symposium “Grassland renovation and weed control in Europe”. Graz; 1991. pp. 213–214.
  28. Sergeeva DD, Nakov SG. Pesticide residues in the meat of pigs and broilers fed with forage containing Dipterex. 1975.
  29. Wang F, et al. Simultaneous determination of ten pesticide residues in forage grass using QuEChERS-gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Chin J Pestic Sci. 2017;19(1):68–75.
  30. Gutenmann WH, Hardee DD, Holland RF, Lisk DJ. Residue Studies with 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid Herbicide in the Dairy Cow and in a Natural and Artificial Rumen. Journal of Dairy Science. 1963;46(11):1287-1288. doi:10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(63)89262-0
  31. Ma Q, Zhou Y, Parales RE, Jiao S, Ruan Z, Li L. Effects of herbicide mixtures on the diversity and composition of microbial community and nitrogen cycling function on agricultural soil: A field experiment in Northeast China. Environmental Pollution. 2025;372:125965. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2025.125965
  32. Olson KR, Cihacek L, Speidel DR. Review and analysis: Environmental and human health impacts of herbicide use studies conducted during the Vietnam War and historical lessons. Open J Soil Sci. 2025;15(2):103–135.
  33. The Institute for Functional Medicine. Exposure to pesticides, herbicides, & insecticides: human health effects. Practitioner. 2022. Available at https://www.ifm.org/news-insights/exposure-pesticides-herbicides-insecticides-human-health-effects/ [Accessed on September 2025].
  34. Hu M, et al. Environmental occurrence, human health risk, and ecological risk assessment of herbicides in the Taihu Lake Basin, China. Hum Heal Risk, Ecol Risk Assess Herbic Taihu Lake Basin, China.
Support